China Research

A discussion forum on emerging markets, mainly China – from a macro, micro, institutional and corporate angle.

Interview with Robert Shiller – “Markets Will Never Completely Understand Their Own Psychology”

November 6, 2013

Quite a number of big financial bubbles have burst in modern financial history, lately four years ago in the IT sector. Do you think that people have become more aware of psychology on financial markets or what research calls behavioral finance?

– We have seen many financial bubbles in the past. There is definitely an increasing awareness of behavioral finance. That’s new. A movement for behavioral finance has been created. But markets will never have a complete understanding of this phenomenon. I doubt that people will completely learn their lesson at any time. Part of the problem lies in the fact that it is hard to know when there really is a financial bubble.

What you have to do is to analyze carefully and judge what impact other persons’ language has on attitudes and markets. It is so difficult to have an idea about the long-term value of an asset, if markets are behaving in a herdlike way, and prices are too high. Mistakes will be made again and again.

The other thing is, of course, that lots of people disregard these facts and believe that a new era with new rules is about to start. Interpretation of behavioral finance is also a question of experience.

Right now, people say Alan Greenspan did not object to the bubble and so it can’t be a bubble. I have great respect for the man, but he could caught up in a bubble, too. This is something you realize after the fact.

Probably you are mainly referring to the booming housing sector in the U.S. Is there any way of measuring such a potential threat?

– I have given some ideas about that in several discussion papers, based on questions and surveys. It strikes me as odd that there is not more research on how people think.

This is, however, contrary to what Milton Friedman said in his Essays in Positive Economics, 1953 – that people should not be asked what they are thinking because they never can be truthful and never can explain. That thinking has dominated the economic profession for decades, looking only at actions when building the models. As a result of this, economists don’t look into minds of individuals.

A method of studying real estate bubbles is to listen to people. One thing I learned from these surveys is that many people were buying houses because of the bursting of the stock market bubble. This seems paradoxical. You might have expected that people after a stock market downturn would sell their homes to get money or that they would be depressed, and not willing to bid hard for new homes.

What happened was that people got fed up with the stock market and instead moved to real estate. People like houses because houses are visible and regarded as quite a safe investment.

However, the question remains: Do people tend to forget interest rate sensitivity when rates are very low? Why do people not consider that U.S. rates will go up in the foreseeable future?

– This is the big issue and partly a generational thing. Interest rates have been going down since the early 80’s. Younger people are just complacent about this, believing that interest rates always go down. Apart from that, there is a feeling of desperation in some areas. Los Angeles is an interesting example of this. People there seem to think that the real estate bubble will never end – or if it ends it will be at a much higher level than now.

These people worry that they can miss the chance of buying a house. They want to lock it in. They want to get the house and feel a sense of urgency. Many are borrowing very large amounts on flexible-rate mortgages because payments are affordable when interests rates are very low. They are not concerned about rising interest rates because they assume their incomes will be going up.

However, a lot can happen which people tend to forget. By the way, real interest rates are not really low in a historical perspective.

Buying a home is a very emotional decision, especially buying a home for the first time. Right now, the decision is what kind of house to buy. You could buy a depressing and affordable house, or a nicer one that will not be affordable when rates rise.

The importance of behavioral finance for financial markets is now widely accepted. However, a number of economists argue that behavioral finance now needs more support from psychological research.

What should be done?

– Much more can be done. I think we are just at the beginning. It is still at the frontier. The combination of economics and psychology is probably the most exciting area in the profession today. Mathematical economics has been dominating for some decades and has had an impressive development. But it has cut economics off from other sciences.

Meanwhile psychology, sociology. anthropology, political science and ecology are gaining momentum as factors driving economic behavior. These disciplines have to be combined with economics which is not easy to do. Academia needs more professional interaction. Especially professors have to promote this.

 

 

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The Dancing Baby Elephant : The Fall of Rupee & the Indian Economy

India, the largest secular democracy in the world, is home to 1.21 billion people (i.e. about 17.4 % of world population). In terms of economics, India accounts for 2.5% of world GDP in US dollar terms and 5.5 % in purchasing power parity (ppp) terms. India’s rich civilisation history dates back to over 10,000 years, going back to the Harrapan and Mohanjadaro periods having high appreciation for architectural layout of townships and structured lifestyles. In the last 5,000 years till the invasion by the Mughal and the British, India was referred as the Golden Bird with the highest possible respect for women and mankind. Texts and temples of these periods clearly reflect the richness in the society and the importance of gold in a common man’s life for the use of cloths, utensils and for consumption as part of food (which is re-emerging in modern India).

The currency regime in India (then Hindutav Raj / Bharat /Hindustan) goes back to about 1,000 BCE with the creation of coins in gold and hence forth in silver for long periods of reins much prior to the Chandragupta Maurya glorious period of 350 BCE. Chanakya’s (Kautilya) work “Arthashastra” is the first ever written text in economics – in 350 BCE (2362 years back), outlining: the way a kingdom is to be run ; the role of a King ; the functions, duties and role of his officials and the way civilian functions should work in the society. Kautilya’s teachings given in the Arthashastra (meaning economics in Sanskrit) holds very well in today’s time, though Adam Smith’s work of “Wealth of Nations” is no longer valid in today’s context. Hence, I always refer to Chanakya (more commonly known as Kautilya), a teacher, as the father of economics.

India has been one of the earliest issuers of coins (around the sixth century BCE). The first “rupee” is believed to have been introduced by Sher Shah Suri (1486–1545), based on a ratio of 40 copper pieces (paisa) per rupee. Among the earliest issues of paper rupees were those by the Bank of Hindustan (1770–1832), the General Bank of Bengal and Bihar (1773–75, established by Warren Hastings) and the Bengal Bank (1784–91), amongst others. Until 1815, the Madras Presidency also issued a currency based on the fanam, with 12 fanams equal to the rupee. Historically, the rupee, derived from the Sanskrit word raupya, which means silver, and it was a silver coin.

Over the years, the Indian Rupee (INR) has emerged as a strong currency having a strong base with good fundamentals. This is in special reference with the economic conditions in the West (U.S., Europe, Russia, Latin America and other regions), where they suffered from high inflation, low GDP, liquidity crunch and banking sluggishness. The following positive developments could be noted: Indian GDP growth has been stable around 6.9% for last three years and over 8.4% in the last eight years preceding these two years ; there has been control on inflation, which before had soared up to double digit and has been brought down to a sustainable level ; foreign exchange reserves hanged around US$ 290 million for the last four years ; FDI flow strengthened over the last year ; fiscal deficit was under control ; international confidence in Indian had been strong and building up; the economy was relatively self-sufficient ; flows of NRI remittances increased; the conservative banking system proved to be stable.

All these noted strengths show the true potential for the Indian currency (INR) to strengthen and attain the well-deserved level of Rs 35 – Rs. 40 against a US$ if it is allowed to float freely in the short run (next 8-10 months). The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has always tried to keep a managed floating exchange rate since the early 1970s.

Numerous challenges-cum-opportunities lay before the Indian economy given the steep recent fall of the rupee and the trembling global economy. These challenges bring four serious concerns for the dancing baby elephant like

(a) a threat to India’s National Security and Indian’s tomorrow as an outfall of the rupee deprecation ; (b) challenges for the trade participants and the business in India ; (c) the appropriate mix of financial volatility, a relatively stable exchange rate and the conduction of a robust monetary policy ; (d) concerns about fiscal discipline and the role of the government ; (e) rising inflation and the costs for major parts of the population ; (f) the possible impact of the Fed’s and the ECB’s future policies.

National security implies a state or condition where our most cherished values and beliefs, our democratic way of life, our institutions of governance and our unity, welfare and well-being as a nation and people are permanently protected and continuously enhanced. The fundamental elements that lie at the core of national security, and therefore further amplifies our definition of national security, are a strong and stable currency; socio-political stability; territorial integrity; economic solidarity and strength; ecological balance; cultural cohesiveness; moral-spiritual consensus and external peace. The transition between great civilization and an economic power house is a slow process that is centered on the incumbent’s struggle to balance short-term national security demands and long-term economic interests. It is impossible to predict exactly what the future of the currency holds, it is impossible to also predict exactly the second and third order effects of a persistent currency collapse/fall.

However, such a persistent depreciation/fall in the value of the currency would have important consequences on the Nation’s continued reliance on deficit financing. The inflow of foreign financing would be dramatically, if not wholly, reduced as the value of the currency falls. Hence the country would have to pay higher interest rates to fund future debt to offset the increasing uncertainty about its future value which would place a restrictions on future government spending. Any hope of covering this spending shortfall by increasing revenue through taxation is also unlikely to succeed in the short-term because of potential impacts to the domestic economy (Everingham and Anderson, 2011). Such a crisis would force the Government to make immediate budget cuts (especially in defense and social security) due to the loss of international funding. Even modest reductions in government spending would affect funding support for the national security strategy, since the costs for the up-gradation/procurement of the latest technology defense equipment/aircrafts/missiles would impound up the need for foreign currency.

Some of the reasons which seem to have been driving the rupee to its low levels in past months have been (a) elections coming forth (having huge funds moving into the country to fund them) ; (b) the Fed’s guidance being sought which also should enable the U.S. economy to have a smooth comeback ; (c) RBI’s management of their balance sheet ; (d) the Ministry of Finance wanting to manage the fiscal deficit at the same level ; (e) the IPL Scam, where the investors and the Cricket Team Funding Organizations/Groups from overseas would be withdrawing their funds given the uncertainty of the IPP moving forward; (f) the exporters’ lobby who would like to bring their funds kept in US dollar or euros or other currencies back into India for their quarterly results to be shown as good ; (g) the non-implementation of the second phase of economic reforms ; (h) no focus and development of the agro sector, agro banking and the agro-based economic framework, where more than 70 percent of the population of this country is housed; (i) RBIs performance being tamed by the brilliant presence of strong political leaders like Shri P Chidambaram,  Manmohan Singh and Shri Pranab Mukherjee in a UPA Government during times of the world’s worst financial turmoil having its seeds in the West with oil bubble, natural and man-made tsunamis and NPA accumulation by banks between 2004-2007 bringing its heat further to the Asian region after 2008 until today.

In my opinion, there has been no valid reason for the rupee to fall. There are all necessary positive signs in India – given the recession that hit the global village – to enable the economic growth and the rupee to appreciate at new levels which have not been observed since the 1991 fall when the rupee was fluctuating between Rs. 11 – Rs 13 for one US dollar.

India at its independence in 1947 had an exchange rate of Rs. 0.50 for aUS$ (i.e. 2 USD for 1 rupee) when we were by 98 percent an importing country, had almost no industrial or economic growth and no strengths to match any developed nation. Statistically simulated empirical evidence shows that the recent single rupee fall means sending the nation, its people and economic developments clearly backward.

The Indian Rupee (INR) in the last 40 years has been slowly, steadily and strongly emerging as a reserve currency in various countries neighboring to India (in South Asia, in East Asia, in the Arabic region and in Africa). In the Arabic region, the INR was floated with a different colour of currency note in the 1970s. The new governor of the central bank, professor Raghuram Rajan, outlined on September 5, 2013, also highlights that the Indian INR ought to be recognized as an international currency.

The RBI has been able to curtail the Money Supply (M3) growth to 13 percent as against 17-22 percent (between 2005-2008). In the last one year the M3 has again gone up by 17 percent and hopefully given the new policy framework adopted by Governor Prof. Raghuram Rajan of having a multi-facet monetary targeting policy with special focus on an inflation target, would help the RBI bring the M3 back to a 13 percent level. The multi-objective and multi-instruments approach followed by the RBI in formulating the monetary policy has helped in interpreting developments in the financial system and taking prompt corrective action. Also the measures such as putting in place robust systems for reducing counterparty risk in OTC transactions through CCP arrangements and regulation of shadow banking institutions to address the interconnectedness issues have helped in containing the impact of the crisis.

The high savings rate of 33 percent has also been a positive anchor to the economic downturn and the threats of rising unemployment and large number of Indian workforce retrenched and returning back home between 1995 (from the U.S.); 1997-99 (from South East Asia), 2001-03 (from the U.S.), 2008-12 (from Europe and the U.S.). It should be kept in mind that India has a shadow economy as strong as the normal economy, which provides for a buffer for any kind of recession with actual savings rate and GDP growth being substantially higher than the official figures. The FDI flows in 2011-12 and 2012-13 have seen a big jolt due to the bleak economic scenario globally, however, given the trends observed in the increase in FX reserves it is expected to improve in 2013-14.

The Government of India needs to re-consider its FX reserve policy both from the perspective of putting the excessive reserve to productive use and by allowing the exchange rate to float freely and to appreciate – given strong currents of depreciation of the US dollar, the euro and the GBP, which are the major currencies in the basket of currencies in accordance with trade balances.

Governor Rajan having served as Advisor to the Prime Minister and as a Chief Economic Advisor to the government would entail smooth functioning. I strongly feel that the symbiotic relationship which Rajan has with President Shri Pranab Mukherjee, Prime Minister Manmohan Singh and Finance Minister Shri P Chadambaram is unique and would serve to be of advantage for the Indian Economy and international confidence inIndia.

References

  1. Agarwal, Aman, (2007), “Global Dis-Equilibrium, Growth and Europe”, Plenary Keynote Address at the Economia Reale Conference at Sala delle Colonne (Italian Parliament),19th September 2007. Audio of the Speech online at Italian Media Channels (Radio RadicaleItaly www.radioradicale.it/scheda/235385 and Sherpa TV Italy) & at IIF (www.iif.edu).
  2. Agarwal, Aman; (2003); “US Federal Reserve Policy, RBI Policy and Indian Economy” Lok Sabha TV (Parliament of India TV Channel) in Public Forum Program on Saturday, September 21st, 2013 at 7:00 PM – 8:00 PM.
  3. Agarwal, Aman; (2013); “Challenges before RBI Governor Raghuram Rajan” Lok Sabha TV (Parliament of India TV Channel) in Insight Program on Friday, September 6th, 2013 at 1:00 PM – 2:00 PM.
  4. Agarwal, J.D. and Aman Agarwal, (2004), “International Money Laundering in the Banking Sector, Finance India, Vol XVIII No 2, June 2004; Reprinted with permission in The ICFAI Journal of Banking Law, Vol. II No. 4, October 2004, the journal of ICFAI University, Hyderabad. Invited to deliver as the Keynote Address at the Asia Pacific Banker’s Congress 2004 inManila,PHILIPPINES on 26th March 2004. (25-26th March 2004)
  5. Agarwal, J.D. and Aman Agarwal; (2009);”Building Nations Future in times of Recession and Global Dis-Equilibriums“, Invited to be delivered as Plenary Keynote Address at the Parliament of Finland (EDUSKUNTA) at the Finland Parliament Committee of the Future’s Conference on “Future of Nation Building” at The Parliament, Helsinki, FINLAND (July 6th, 2009)
  6. Agarwal, J.D., (2004), “Volatility of International Financial Markets: Regulation and Financial Supervision” delivered as Keynote Address at the 4th International Conference in Finance organized by Faculty of Administration & Economics, University of Santiago de Chile, CHILE on 7th January 2004; Finance India Vol. XVIII No. 1, March 2004.
  7. Agarwal, J.D.; (2013); “The Indian Economy & the Rupee Depreciation”, Lok Sabha TV (Parliament ofIndia TV Channel) in Insight Program on August 2013 at 1:00 PM – 2:00 PM.
  8. Agarwal, J.D.; Manju Agarwal and Aman Agarwal; (2013); “Fall of Rupee & its Impact on Indian Economy: The Dancing Baby Elephant“, Invited to be delivered as Guest of Honour Plenary Address at the 2nd VDMA German Mechanical Engineering Summit 2013 at Taj Vivanta, Bangalore, India [30th September 2013]
  9. Bernanke, Ben S., (2008), “The Euro at Ten : Lessons and Challenges”, at the 5th ECB Central Banking Conference, Frankfurt, Germany, November 14th, 2008
  10. Everingham, Neil C.; and David A. Anderson; (2011); “The Dollar’s Vulnerability and the Threat to National Security”, Strategic Insights, Vol. 10, No. 1, Spring 2011
  11. Fromlet, Hubert, (2008), “Financial Literacy and its Benefits on a Household, Corporate and Macroeconomic Level“, Working Paper, Baltic Business School, Kalmar/Sweden, & Blekinge Institute of Technology, Ronneby/Sweden, April 2008.
  12. Kalam, Abdul A.P.J and A Sivathanu Pillai, (2004), “Envisioning an Empowered Nation : Technology for Societal Transformation”, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Ltd,Delhi
  13. Miller, Merton H., (1990), “Leverage”, Nobel Prize Lecture, December 7, 1990


 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Aman Agarwal
Professor of finance, vice chairman of the Indian Institute of Finance (IIF) and Executive Editor of “Finance India”, Delhi

 

 

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Emerging Market Entry Node Pattern and Experiential Knowledge of Small and Medium-sized Enterprises from Southern Sweden

As part of the Center for International Business Studies on Emerging Markets (CIBEM) at the Linnaeus School of Business and Economics, Kalmar, Sweden, my research concerns small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) entering and taking off from emerging markets. This note is based on a recent publication in International Marketing Review, where the aim was to conceptualize “entry node”, describe the entry node pattern of SMEs entering emerging market business networks, and determine how network nodes are associated with experiential knowledge.

The global marketplace has changed drastically during the last decades due to the opening up of formerly closed markets – such as China, India, former Soviet Union countries and several countries in Central and Eastern Europe. For Swedish firms, this has meant new business opportunities geographically close-by, but also in more distant emerging markets. As a result, increasing trade figures have been seen with emerging markets overall, and in Southern Sweden the EU-enlargement in 2004, when the Baltic States and Poland entered the EU, created a remarkable upswing in the number of registered importers and exporters.

Studying 203 small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs) in Southern Sweden that have entered the emerging markets of the Baltic States, Poland, Russia and China, it is seen that the entrance into these markets was made primarily during the last two decades, after these markets opened up. The firms tend to be traditional manufacturing firms that entered emerging markets in the later stages of their internationalization, following on domestic market experience and international sales to less distant market in terms of culture and language, for example, the Nordic countries, Western Europe and the USA. These mature markets are still the main export markets for the studied firms, even if the emerging markets are given increasing attention.

When entering foreign markets, knowledge is seen to be a key ingredient. It is acquired by learning by doing as a way to decrease uncertainty in a market and thus spur further commitment. Such experiential knowledge is either general internationalization knowledge that is applicable across markets, or market specific knowledge regarding the society, business network or customers in a specific foreign market. For emerging markets, being turbulent and different, prior research has shown that general internationalization knowledge is less useful as it has been accumulated in mature markets. Thus, the market-specific knowledge becomes more valuable for establishment and further internationalization in emerging markets.

Studies on foreign market establishments have focused foremost on the structural organization of the firm, in the form of the entry mode. For example, exports through an intermediary (agent or distributor) or through sales office in the foreign market. However, viewing foreign market entry from a network perspective, the establishment point into foreign market networks is defined as an entry node. This acknowledges recommendations to focus on the process of entry through relationship-building activities, rather than examining the entry as an isolated event, as is done when studying entry modes. In relation to the concept of entry node, the following assumptions are made regarding the entry situations of firms entering foreign markets:

(1)   Triad via the home market is the least committed entry situation, using an intermediary located in the domestic market as the entry node. Here, the firm has an indirect connection to the customer and thus no direct relationship with the foreign market. This means that no or very little market- or customer-specific experience and knowledge is gained.

(2)   Triad via the host market is a more committed entry situation, since, even if the exporter still has an indirect relationship with the foreign customer, it now holds a direct relationship to the market through a foreign intermediary. Depending on how this triad is organized, a varying degree of access to market-specific and possibly also customer-specific knowledge is gained.

(3)   Dyad from the home market is an even more committed entry situation since it permits a direct connection to the foreign customer from the home market. Experiential learning in the market and knowledge about the customer is gained directly to the extent allowed by the customer.

(4)   Dyad at the host market is the most committed entry situation, since the firm has committed itself to foreign customer relationships both by having direct relationships and by having invested resources in forming an establishment of its own in the foreign market, which then constitutes the entry node. The opportunities for experiential knowledge accumulation are the greatest in this entry situation.

When looking at the entry pattern of the studied SMEs, the main choice of initial entry situation was a triad via the host market, thus using an intermediary in the host market (113 firms). The second choice was a dyad directly linked to the host market (61 firms). Less used was the dyad in the host market, which includes the entry node of a foreign subsidiary (16 firms), or the indirect relationship of a triad via a domestic intermediary (13 firms). Thereby, 92 percent of the firms initially entered the emerging markets via nodes that correspond to the mode of exports, showing them to be trade, rather than investment, driven. After the initial entry, 70 percent did not change their entry node. These firms have an average of 10.3 years of market experience. But 30 percent did change their node between the time of entry and of the study. These firms have an average of 15.8 years of market experience. When making a change of node, 66 percent changed to a more committed network node, while 34 percent de-internationalized, taking a step back from the foreign customer.

The entry node pattern of the Swedish multinational SMEs then indicates a traditional internationalization pattern and supports previous findings regarding entry into emerging markets. Still, the sufficient number of direct relationships with foreign customers is surprisingly large, considering that the host markets are emerging and were entered under somewhat unstable conditions since the 1980s. However, this is in line with previous research into SMEs from this part of Sweden trading with emerging Baltic markets. A very small share of firms used the dyad in the host market, involving FDI, which supports the premise that SMEs tend to be more trade than investment driven in their internationalization. The smallest share of firms was found to use the low-committed entry node of home market triad, which is a fairly uncommon way to enter foreign markets today, as there are few trading houses left in the mature Swedish market. Regarding changed node connections after the initial entry the SMEs foremost adapted a more committed and direct node, which is also in line with traditional internationalization process theory. Most firms, however, continued to use indirect connections via an intermediary, which tend to be preferred in uncertain markets as it involves less risk and resources.

The type of entry node is confirmed to associate with the level of market-specific experiential knowledge held by the firms; more knowledge goes hand in hand with a higher commitment node. Thus, firms holding a dyad on the host market, in the form of a sales office or production unit, also had the highest level of knowledge. But as it is also the most resource-demanding type of node, it is seldom the initial entry node of SMEs. Instead, it is a preferred node when a firm wants to increase its commitment to the emerging market by changing node. When comparing the types experiential market-specific knowledge held by the SMEs, the highest levels concerned the business network, followed by societal and customer-specific knowledge. Thereby the business network knowledge is the most acquired and is suggested to be the most valuable kind of knowledge when operating in a foreign market.

The present findings have managerial implications in terms of how some entry nodes are better providers of experiential knowledge than others. As international relationship building drives internationalization, firms need to find the right international setup and connection to a counterpart that they trust and with which they can build a long-term and committed relationship. When Swedish SMEs entered the complex emerging markets of the Baltic States, Poland, Russia, and China in their later stages of internationalization, they could not apply prior experience gained from other international markets to these new emerging market contexts. Accordingly, a low-commitment node was the main choice for entry. However, SMEs should be aware that a direct customer relationship through a subsidiary in the foreign market is superior in terms of knowledge accumulation. When aiming for experiential knowledge, it should be acknowledged that, according to this study, the host market triad and the home market dyad do not differ significantly in terms of knowledge accumulation. This should be considered when taking the first step into a foreign market network. In addition, although it may be too demanding in terms of resources for the initial entry, a dyad relationship in the host market would be a preferable step for further internationalization in order to become an insider in the emerging market business network.

Source: Sandberg, S. (2013) SME node pattern and experiential knowledge in emerging markets. International Marketing Review. 30(2): 106-129.

The article is part of a special issue on SME internationalization and can be accessed via International Marketing Review:

http://www.emeraldinsight.com/journals.htm?issn=0265-1335&volume=30&issue=2

 

 

 

 

 

 

Susanne Sandberg
PhD International Marketing, Linnaeus University

Editorial board

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